A practical reference on Alpha-MSH: what it is, how it behaves, what the literature reports, and where the honest uncertainties sit.
This page was last updated on 2025-10-24 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Early published reports described melanotan-2 as a tanning agent without sun protection, which means darkening is not the same as protection against ultraviolet radiation. Later studies explored the peptide in erectile dysfunction, hemorrhagic shock, and some skin conditions. No regulator in the United States or Europe has approved it for clinical use. Many products labelled melanotan-2 are sold without approval and their identity and purity are unverified. Its long-term safety in humans remains an open question.
Melanotan-2, also written Melanotan II, is a synthetic cyclic heptapeptide designed as an analogue of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone. Its sequence is Ac-Nle-cyclo[Asp-His-D-Phe-Arg-Trp-Lys]-NH2, and the lactam bridge between the aspartate and lysine side chains constrains the peptide into a ring. This structural change increases receptor affinity and metabolic stability relative to the native hormone. The compound was created in the 1980s as a research tool for studying pigmentation biology.
Melanocytes are the pigment-producing cells of the skin, and they carry melanocortin-1 receptors on their surface. When the receptor is activated, cyclic adenosine monophosphate rises inside the cell and raises the activity of enzymes such as tyrosinase, which increases melanin output. Melanotan-2 binds melanocortin-1 receptors in vitro and in animal models, and this binding is generally described as the basis for the tanning effect. Other receptors account for different effects: melanocortin-4 receptors contribute to appetite and erectile signalling, while melanocortin-3 and melanocortin-5 receptors contribute to energy balance and exocrine function.
Published research on the compound remains limited. Much of the human data comes from small, early-stage studies rather than large controlled trials, and several questions about effects and variability between individuals remain open. Investigators have examined receptor activity, pigment pathways, and related physiological responses in laboratory and animal models. Findings from those models do not automatically translate to human outcomes. Reviews frequently note the scarcity of rigorous clinical evidence and call for better-characterized study material.
Because the substance circulates mainly through informal markets, verification is a recurring theme in technical discussion. Independent analyses have found that labeled content and actual content can diverge, and that purity varies between samples. Analytical laboratories use reversed-phase chromatography to separate components and mass spectrometry to confirm identity. Isotope-labeled internal standards improve quantification in complex matrices. Such methods describe what a sample contains but say nothing about its sterility, lawful status, or suitability for any use. Open questions remain about how consistently testing is applied across the supply chain.
Regulatory treatment of this peptide varies by country. It holds no marketing authorization as a medicine in the United States, the European Union, or most other jurisdictions. Some countries classify products containing it as prescription-only or unlicensed medicines, which restricts lawful supply. Authorities have issued public notices warning that unregulated products may contain undeclared or incorrect ingredients. The molecule also appears on prohibited lists for competitive sport. These measures address supply oversight rather than any approved therapeutic role.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Compound class | Synthetic cyclic heptapeptide | Alpha-MSH analogue containing a D-phenylalanine residue |
| Molecular formula | C50H69N15O9 | Average molecular mass approximately 1024.2 g/mol |
| Appearance | White to off-white lyophilised powder | Normally supplied as a freeze-dried solid in a sealed vial |
| Solubility | Freely soluble in water and polar solvents | Dissolves readily in aqueous buffers and in alcohol-water mixtures |
| Receptor targets | MC1R, MC3R, MC4R, MC5R | Acts as a non-selective melanocortin receptor agonist |
Regulatory treatment varies between countries. Several national medicines agencies have classified the peptide as unapproved, and customs authorities in some jurisdictions seize shipments on that basis. A few jurisdictions channel supply through prescription-only frameworks that do not list the substance by name. Because the material circulates mainly through online vendors, composition and purity are rarely verified before sale. Surveys of unapproved peptide products have reported labels that did not match measured content in a substantial fraction of samples.
Melanotan II is a synthetic cyclic heptapeptide analogue of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, a naturally occurring peptide involved in pigmentation signalling. Its structure substitutes a lactam bridge between side chains to increase stability relative to the native hormone. The compound is also known by the shorthand MT-II and by several non-proprietary synonyms used in research catalogues. It is not an approved therapeutic product in any major jurisdiction; material sold under this name is typically offered as a laboratory reagent rather than as a medicine.
Analytical confirmation of identity relies on mass spectrometry, most often coupled to liquid chromatography. Reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography separates the peptide from related impurities and provides a purity estimate based on peak area. Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry then confirms the expected molecular mass, while tandem mass spectrometry can map the fragment sequence. For research-grade material, these two techniques together form the standard minimum. Purity figures reported by vendors are frequently not traceable to an independent laboratory.
Independent verification is central to quality control because the compound is not produced under pharmaceutical manufacturing standards. Third-party laboratories can measure purity, identity, residual solvents, and microbial contamination, though the scope of testing varies between services. Reported analyses of vendor samples have shown batch-to-batch variation in peptide content and the presence of truncated or oxidized species. How much of this variation reflects synthesis conditions versus storage and shipping is not well characterized. No harmonized reference standard exists for the material as sold.
Melanotan-2 is a synthetic cyclic heptapeptide designed as an analogue of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, the naturally occurring peptide involved in pigmentation signalling. Its sequence is conventionally written as Ac-Nle-cyclo[Asp-His-D-Phe-Arg-Trp-Lys]-NH2, with a lactam bridge joining the aspartate side chain to the lysine side chain. The empirical formula is C50H69N15O9 and the monoisotopic mass lies near 1023.5 daltons. N-terminal acetylation and the D-configured phenylalanine both increase resistance to enzymatic breakdown compared with the parent hormone.
Pharmacologically, melanotan-2 behaves as a non-selective agonist across the melanocortin receptor family. Binding at MC1R on dermal melanocytes promotes eumelanin synthesis, which underlies the tanning response described in early human work. Activity at the centrally expressed MC4R receptor is associated with reported effects on appetite and erectile function. Because the peptide does not discriminate strongly among receptor subtypes, attributing any single observed effect to one receptor pathway is generally not possible without selective antagonists or receptor knockout models.
Lyophilized peptide powder is generally stored frozen, protected from light and moisture. Tryptophan residues are susceptible to oxidation, and the lactam bridge can hydrolyze under strongly acidic or basic conditions. Solutions prepared for laboratory work degrade faster than dry powder, and repeated freeze-thaw cycles accelerate loss. Common practice is to aliquot solutions before freezing and to avoid alkaline buffers. Reported stability windows vary with concentration, buffer, and temperature, so exact shelf lives are method-specific rather than universal.
Regulatory status differs by country, and in many places supplying the compound for human consumption is unlawful. Vendors frequently label material as intended for research use only, a designation that shifts stated purpose but does not create a legal pathway for personal use. Certificates of analysis accompanying such products vary widely in detail and provenance. Third-party testing exists but is voluntary, and results are rarely linked to a specific lot in a publicly verifiable way.
Identity testing for a synthetic peptide relies on several complementary methods. Reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography separates the target from related impurities and reports purity as a percentage of total peak area. Mass spectrometry confirms molecular mass and can reveal deletions or truncations. Amino acid analysis and peptide mapping provide sequence-level confirmation, while counter-ion content and residual solvents are measured separately. A purity figure alone does not establish identity, so a complete dataset combines chromatographic and spectrometric evidence.
According to The New York Times sources, in February 2021, Israel agreed to finance a supply of the Sputnik V vaccine to Syria in order to secure the release of an Israeli civilian held in Syria. Due to the delay in shipping of doses from Italy and the European Union, San Marino imported doses of the Sputnik V vaccine (not approved by the EMA) and started a mass vaccination on 28 February of its healthcare workers. 14 April 2021, Armenia agreed with Russia on purchase of 1 million doses of coronavirus vaccines Sputnik V. This was the decision of Armenian health minister Anahit Avanesyan. The Armenian authorities have begun negotiations with Russia on the production of the Sputnik V coronavirus vaccine. Head of the Armenian Ministry of Health Anahit Avanesyan stated this at a press conference on 12 March 2021.
In cancer, the genomes of affected cells are rearranged in complex or unpredictable ways. In addition to single-nucleotide polymorphism arrays identifying point mutations that cause cancer, oligonucleotide microarrays can be used to identify chromosomal gains and losses (called comparative genomic hybridization). These detection methods generate terabytes of data per experiment. The data is often found to contain considerable variability, or noise, and thus Hidden Markov model and change-point analysis methods are being developed to infer real copy number changes. Two important principles can be used to identify cancer by mutations in the exome. First, cancer is a disease of accumulated somatic mutations in genes. Second, cancer contains driver mutations which need to be distinguished from passengers. Further improvements in bioinformatics could allow for classifying types of cancer by analysis of cancer driven mutations in the genome. Furthermore, tracking of patients while the disease progresses may be possible in the future with the sequence of cancer samples. Another type of data that requires novel informatics development is the analysis of lesions found to be recurrent among many tumors.
In 2011 there were approximately 12,000 students in all disciplines in Le Havre. Opened in 1986, the University of Le Havre is recent, medium-sized and well located: the largest campus is virtually in the centre of the city near railway and tram stations. The campus includes a University Library (2006), a gym, several dining halls with student housing, a structure incorporating a theatre, an orientation service, and student associations. In 2010–2011, 6,914 students were enrolled including 5,071 undergraduates, 1,651 Masters students, and 192 postgraduate students. The university also trains 317 engineering students including the Logistical Studies Higher Education Institute (ISEL). It offers 120 Diplomas of State prepared by the Faculty of Science and Technology, Faculty of International Affairs, and the Faculty of Arts and Humanities. Many courses are offered are related to the port operations, logistics, industry, and sustainable development. Twelve languages are taught and 17% of students are foreigners. The University of Le Havre is also a research centre with nine laboratories. It works in partnership with other higher education institutions (INSA Rouen, IEP, IUFM, and Normandy University). The University Institutes of Technology of Le Havre occupies two main sites: one in the upper town in the Caucriauville-Rouelles district which was opened in 1967 and another in the Eure district since 2011. The IUT has a total of 1,881 students divided into ten departments preparing for the DUT.
== Application == B1H system provides a tool in our arsenal for identifying the DNA-binding specificities of transcription factors and thus predicting their target genes and genomic DNA regulatory elements. It also allows for examination of the effects of protein–protein interactions on DNA binding, which may further guide the prediction of cis regulatory modules based on binding-site clustering. Moreover, the B1H selection system has implications for the predicting regulatory roles of previously uncharacterized transcription factors.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== 8 April === Three people were killed and eight others were injured in a Russian missile attack on Zaporizhzhia. One person was killed and five others were injured in Russian air strikes in Sumy Oblast. Two people were killed in separate attacks in Chasiv Yar and Poltava. Ukrainian hackers launched a cyberattack on a data center used by the Russian military, energy, and telecommunications industries, which affected 10,000 enterprises including Gazprom and Lukoil. The SBU arrested a former member of the Party of Regions in Sumy Oblast on suspicion of spying for Russia.
== History == Phytochelatin was first discovered in 1981 in fission yeast, and was named cadystin. It was then found in higher plants in 1985 and was named phytochelatin. In 1989 the biosynthetic enzyme, phytochelatin synthase, was discovered.
== Interactions == Pindolol has been found to robustly potentiate the effects of the serotonergic psychedelic dimethyltryptamine (DMT). This is thought to be due to its serotonin 5-HT1A receptor antagonism, which is thought to disinhibit the effects of DMT.
is the concentration of the solid in the diffusion layer surrounding the solid. D is the diffusion coefficient. L is the diffusion layer thickness. As can be inferred from the Noyes–Whitney equation, the rate of dissolution may be modified primarily by altering the surface area of the solid by altering the particle size (e.g., with micronization). For many drugs, reducing the particle size reduces the dose needed to achieve the same therapeutic effect. The particle size reduction increases the specific surface area and the dissolution rate and does not affect solubility. The rate of dissolution may also be altered by choosing a suitable polymorph of a compound. Different polymorphs have different solubility and dissolution rate characteristics. Specifically, crystalline forms dissolve slower than amorphous forms since they require more energy to leave the lattice during dissolution. The stablest crystalline polymorph has the lowest dissolution rate. Dissolution also differs between anhydrous and hydrous forms of a drug. Anhydrous forms often dissolve faster but sometimes are less soluble. Esterification is also used to control solubility. For example, stearate and estolate esters of drugs have decreased solubility in gastric fluid. Later, esterases in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) wall and blood hydrolyze these esters to release the parent drug. Coatings on a tablet or pellet may act as barriers to reducing the dissolution rate. Coatings may also be used to control where dissolution takes place.
. R is the gas constant and T is the absolute temperature. Note that pKa = −log(Ka) and 2.303 ≈ ln(10). At 25 °C, ΔG⊖ in kJ·mol−1 ≈ 5.708 pKa (1 kJ·mol−1 = 1000 joules per mole). Free energy is made up of an enthalpy term and an entropy term.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
No. It is a laboratory-made peptide, while the natural hormone is alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, a longer peptide produced by the pituitary gland and by skin cells. Melanotan-2 mimics only a short active region of that hormone and contains non-natural residues such as D-phenylalanine.
No approved regulatory indication exists in major markets. An approval exists for a different peptide, afamelanotide, which is used for a rare photosensitivity disorder called erythropoietic protoporphyria. Melanotan-2 itself remains a research compound with no cleared clinical role.
Melanocortin-1 receptors on melanocytes are the receptor most closely linked to pigment production. The peptide is not selective, however, and also activates melanocortin-3, melanocortin-4, and melanocortin-5 receptors. That lack of selectivity is the usual explanation offered for both its range of observed effects and its off-target effects.
Only a small number of early-stage human studies have been reported, and most were limited in size and duration. No large late-stage program has established a general efficacy or safety profile. The evidence base is therefore thin compared with approved medicines.